I understand how to do electron energy - level diagrams for ions.For example, Aluminum Al3+ -gt; 13p+ -gt; 2e- -gt; 8e-Because Al has 3+ Ions, it would cancel out 3 of the 13 electrons that are present, so you are only going up to 10But what do you do for a element like Hydrogen, which has a 1+ and a 1-Which one do you use?Thanks.Also, just to make sure, Protons has the same number as electrons right? And to find neutrons, you just need to subtract the protons from the total mass(Molar Mass) to get the neutron and vice versa?Thanks.
They had more protection than 'two sheets of aluminium foil'For one thing that was a description of the thickness of the pressure skin of the lunar module, and the astronauts weren't in the lunar module when they passed through the beltsFor another, if you check the construction of any of the Apollo spacecraft, there was more than that thin metal sheet between the astronauts and the outside of the spacecraftThere were inner skins, outer protective layers, several layers of mylar or honeycomb, interior control panels and stowage spaces, fuel tanks, all sorts A third point is that the radiation in the belts is particle radiation, and the best shield for it happens to be light metals like aluminium, or plastics, both of which were in abundant supply in the construction of the spacecraftAnd finally, they didnt linger there but went through at full pelt, taking about two hours in total to pass through.
Hydrogen can lose one electron (like sodium and potassium) to form an H+ cation (comprising only of a proton) to react with nonmetals like F, O, Cl etcIt can also gain 1 electron like halogens to form anions to react with strong metals like sodiumthis is an exceptional behaviorNitrogen, too can act like this(NO2, NH3), however the bonding is not much ionic like that of HH usually forms H+ with other elements and can form H- ion only with strong metalsThis depends on the electronegativity of elements- Yes, in a neutral atom, protons have same number as electrons and this number of protons is its atomic numberOnly appropriately correct if you consider molecular mass, because the mass of proton is slightly less than nuetronBut if you consider mass number (which is just the sum of protons and neutrons) that is 100% correct.
One of the arguments that people who think the moon landings were hoaxed is that the astronauts couldn't survive the radiation from the van Allen Belts, or solar flares, or coronal mass ejectionsThe simple answer is that the astronauts passed through the van Allen Belts in about one half hourThe total exposure was equal to one X-rayEven DrJames van Allen stated that the levels of radiation weren't enough to hurt the astronauts when on the way to the moon.
Quickly They passed the radiation belts in less than 20 minutes after trans-lunar injection, and they passed through regions which are not so active, compared to the core regions of the belts The primary radiation in the Van Allen Belts is proton radiation, that are hydrogen atoms cores without electronsBecause they are charged, Earths magnetic field can concentrate them in the beltsBut because they are charged, they are also deflected already by small shields The thermal shielding around the pressure hull of Apollo was already keeping all, but the rare high-energy protons away, at no additional costsOf course, there is still radiation left, which was measured - all astronauts wore personal dosimeters which measured their exposure to radiationI attached the averaged measured radiation levels of the Apollo flights as source100 rad are one Gray, assuming all is proton radiation (which it wasn't), the Apollo 14 exposure for example would be equal to 57 mSv (millisievert) That is about the allowed annual dose of a radiation worker For causing a mild radiation sickness in a short term exposure, the levels would need to be 10-20 times higher as the peak value of Apollo 14The deadly dose (LD50) is 4500-5000 mSv So, there was a high radiation during the mission, with one mission reaching the annual safe radiation limit of 50 mSvStill, their cancer risk was not even increased by 1% that way(0.8% more risk statistically require 100 mSv)The doses of the Apollo crews are even lower as what aircraft crews on transatlantic flights accumulate during the yearEDIT: And don't trust the Dr Moonfaker numbers - 10000 rem or roughly 100000 mSv would be enough to toast even unmanned spacecraft Which obviously have no such problems.
